Functional Longevity
PQQ (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone): Mitochondrial Biogenesis, ATP Energy & Longevity
💡 What You Need to Know Right Away
- Promotes new mitochondria: PQQ stimulates cellular mitochondrial development through elevated PGC-1α protein expression, supporting energy production at the cellular level.[Evidence: B][2]
- Enhances cognitive function: 20 mg daily for 12 weeks significantly improved composite memory, verbal memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, and executive function in adults aged 40-80.[Evidence: B][4]
- Safe for daily use: EFSA approved PQQ as safe at 20 mg/day with a margin of exposure of 344, confirming safety under intended conditions for healthy adults.[Evidence: D][8]
- Powerful antioxidant: PQQ is a redox-active quinone molecule with strong antioxidant properties that help combat oxidative stress and protect cells.[Evidence: D][1]
If you've been searching for a supplement that supports both brain health and energy levels, you've likely encountered PQQ—pyrroloquinoline quinone. This vitamin-like compound has gained significant attention in the scientific community, and for good reason.
PQQ is a redox-active quinone molecule with antioxidant properties that serves as an essential cofactor for enzymes vital to mitochondrial function and ATP synthesis.[Evidence: D][1] Unlike many supplements with limited research, PQQ has been studied in multiple randomized controlled trials examining its effects on cognitive function, mitochondrial health, and overall well-being.
In this comprehensive guide, you'll discover the 10 science-backed benefits of PQQ, understand how it works at the cellular level, learn the optimal dosage backed by clinical research, and find out who should—and shouldn't—consider this supplement. Whether you're looking to support healthy aging, boost mental clarity, or enhance your energy naturally, this evidence-based resource will help you make an informed decision.
❓ Quick Answers
What does PQQ do for the body?
PQQ supports mitochondrial function, promotes the creation of new mitochondria through a process called mitochondrial biogenesis, and provides powerful antioxidant protection. Research shows PQQ has potential therapeutic applications in managing metabolic disorders, cognitive health, and age-related conditions.[Evidence: D][1] It also enhances memory, attention, and cognitive flexibility in healthy adults.[Evidence: B][4]
How much PQQ should I take daily?
Clinical studies consistently use 20 mg of PQQ daily for optimal benefits. The EFSA safety opinion established 20 mg/day as the safe maximum intake with a margin of exposure of 344.[Evidence: D][8] Human trials demonstrating cognitive benefits used 20-21.5 mg daily for 12 weeks.[Evidence: B][3][4]
Is PQQ safe to take every day?
Yes, PQQ is safe for daily use in healthy adults. EFSA confirmed that PQQ disodium salt is safe under intended conditions of use at up to 20 mg/day.[Evidence: D][8] Comprehensive toxicology assessments found no mutagenic potential, and the NOAEL (no-observed-adverse-effect-level) exceeds 600 mg/kg body weight—far above supplement doses.[Evidence: C][10]
Does PQQ increase mitochondria?
Yes, PQQ stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis—the creation of new mitochondria. A randomized controlled trial demonstrated that PQQ supplementation led to a significant increase in PGC-1α protein levels, the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, compared to placebo.[Evidence: B][2] This means PQQ doesn't just optimize existing mitochondria—it helps your body create more of them.
Is PQQ better than CoQ10?
PQQ and CoQ10 serve different but complementary roles. PQQ promotes the creation of new mitochondria (biogenesis), while CoQ10 optimizes energy production in existing mitochondria. Research suggests combined PQQ and CoQ10 administration enhances cognitive effects beyond either alone.[Evidence: D][9] Many experts recommend taking both together for comprehensive mitochondrial support.
PQQ
Explore the science of the "cellular spark plug"—a unique micro-nutrient that redefines mitochondrial health and neurological longevity.
🔬 How Does PQQ Work?
Think of PQQ as a master key that unlocks multiple pathways in your cells. Just as a skilled conductor coordinates an orchestra to create harmony, PQQ orchestrates several cellular processes that support energy, brain function, and healthy aging.
Mitochondrial Biogenesis: Building New Cellular Powerhouses
Your mitochondria are the power plants of your cells, converting nutrients into ATP—the energy currency your body runs on. PQQ stimulates cellular mitochondrial development through elevated PGC-1α protein expression, essentially telling your cells to build more power plants.[Evidence: B][2] This process, called mitochondrial biogenesis, becomes increasingly important as we age since mitochondrial function naturally declines over time.
Research in heart tissue demonstrates that PQQ enhanced PGC-1α and TFAM expression while preventing mitochondrial morphology damage, supporting healthy cardiac function.[Evidence: C][14]
Antioxidant Protection: Your Cellular Shield
Imagine your cells as a castle under constant siege from free radicals. PQQ acts like a highly efficient guardian, neutralizing these attackers before they can cause damage. As a redox-active quinone molecule, PQQ provides powerful antioxidant protection that helps combat oxidative stress.[Evidence: D][1]
PQQ activates the Nrf2-ARE pathway, your body's own antioxidant defense system. Studies show PQQ interacts with specific residues to dissociate the Keap1-Nrf2 complex and increases nuclear Nrf2 translocation, activating protective genes.[Evidence: C][7] This mechanism upregulates the expression of nuclear Nrf2 and HO-1, protecting cells from oxidative damage.[Evidence: C][12]
Anti-Inflammatory Pathways
Chronic inflammation underlies many health conditions. PQQ reduces expression of inflammation-related genes including IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2 through the SIRT1/NF-κB deacetylation signaling pathway.[Evidence: C][11] Additional research confirms PQQ significantly inhibits matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1 and MMP-3) and suppresses inflammatory mediators via NF-κB and MAPK pathway modulation.[Evidence: C][13]
Neuroprotective Effects
PQQ supports brain health through multiple mechanisms. Clinical trials show it increases cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex while improving attention and working memory.[Evidence: B][3] Review evidence confirms various improvements in general memory, verbal memory, working memory, and attention across different age groups.[Evidence: D][9]
🌟 10 Science-Backed PQQ Benefits
1. Promotes Mitochondrial Biogenesis
PQQ is one of the few compounds shown to stimulate the creation of new mitochondria. In a randomized controlled trial with untrained men, 20 mg daily PQQ supplementation demonstrated a significant increase in PGC-1α protein levels from baseline to post-endurance training.[Evidence: B][2] This molecular evidence confirms PQQ's unique ability to promote mitochondrial biogenesis, potentially benefiting anyone seeking to optimize cellular energy production.
2. Enhances Cognitive Function and Brain Health
Multiple clinical trials demonstrate PQQ's cognitive benefits. A 12-week study in adults aged 40-80 found significant gains in composite memory, verbal memory, reaction time, complex attention, cognitive flexibility, executive function, and motor speed with 21.5 mg daily supplementation.[Evidence: B][4] Another trial with elderly subjects (50-70 years) showed 20 mg BioPQQ daily improved selective attention maintenance on the Stroop test and enhanced working memory in lower-performing participants.[Evidence: B][3]
3. Powerful Antioxidant Protection
PQQ functions as a redox-active quinone molecule with notable antioxidant properties, serving as an essential cofactor for oxidative enzymes vital for mitochondrial function and ATP synthesis.[Evidence: D][1] Its ability to activate the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway provides robust cellular protection against oxidative stress, with research confirming that Nrf2 knockdown abrogates PQQ's protective effects—proving this pathway is central to its benefits.[Evidence: C][12]
4. Supports Energy and Reduces Fatigue
By promoting mitochondrial biogenesis and enhancing mitochondrial function, PQQ supports the body's natural energy production systems. Research confirms PQQ serves as an essential cofactor for enzymes vital to mitochondrial function and ATP synthesis—the fundamental energy currency of cells.[Evidence: D][1] While direct fatigue reduction studies in humans are limited, the mitochondrial mechanisms suggest potential benefits for those experiencing low energy.
5. Neuroprotective Effects
PQQ demonstrates neuroprotective properties through multiple pathways. Clinical research shows PQQ supplementation can prevent reduction of brain function in aged persons, particularly in attention and working memory, while increasing cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex.[Evidence: B][3] Reviews confirm potential therapeutic applications in cognitive health and age-related conditions.[Evidence: D][1]
6. Cardioprotective Benefits
Research indicates PQQ supports heart health through mitochondrial mechanisms. Studies show PQQ prevented mitochondrial morphology damage, enhanced PGC-1α and TFAM expression, regulated calcium homeostasis, and improved pressure overload-induced cardiac remodeling.[Evidence: C][14] These findings suggest PQQ may help maintain healthy cardiac function by protecting heart cell mitochondria.
7. May Support Longevity and Healthy Aging
PQQ's anti-aging potential stems from its effects on mitochondrial health, oxidative stress reduction, and activation of longevity-related pathways. Research demonstrates PQQ activates the Nrf2-ARE pathway, inhibiting natural aging-related degeneration.[Evidence: C][7] The compound's approval as a dietary supplement by EFSA in 2018 recognized its role in supporting healthy aging processes.[Evidence: D][6]
8. Improves Sleep Quality and Mood
Emerging evidence suggests PQQ may benefit sleep and mood. An open-label trial showed improvements in sleep and mood with PQQ supplementation.[Evidence: D][9] While more rigorous controlled trials are needed, these preliminary findings point to PQQ's potential beyond cognitive function.
9. Anti-Inflammatory Properties
PQQ demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory activity through multiple pathways. Research shows it reduces expression of key inflammation-related genes including IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2 via SIRT1/NF-κB deacetylation signaling.[Evidence: C][11] Additional studies confirm PQQ modulates NF-κB and MAPK pathways, suppressing inflammatory mediators and reducing joint destruction in arthritis models.[Evidence: C][13]
10. Metabolic and Weight Management Support
Research suggests PQQ may support healthy metabolism. Studies in animal models show PQQ reduced visceral and hepatic fat accumulation, suppressed fatty acid synthesis, and enhanced beta-oxidation by boosting mitochondrial biogenesis.[Evidence: D][5] Additional research found dietary PQQ ameliorated negative effects of high-energy diets on liver function and enhanced hepatocyte lipid handling capacity.[Evidence: C][15] Human studies are warranted to confirm these metabolic benefits.
📊 Dosage and How to Use
Clinical research provides clear guidance on PQQ dosing. The most studied and effective dosage is 20 mg daily, which has been used in multiple randomized controlled trials with demonstrated benefits and safety.
| Purpose/Goal | Dosage | Duration | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive function (ages 40-80) | 21.5 mg/day | 12 weeks | [B][4] |
| Attention and working memory (ages 50-70) | 20 mg/day | 12 weeks | [B][3] |
| Mitochondrial biogenesis / exercise | 20 mg/day | 6 weeks | [B][2] |
| Young adults (20-40 years) - cognitive | 20 mg/day | 8 weeks | [D][9] |
| Older adults (41-65 years) - cognitive | 20 mg/day | 12 weeks | [D][9] |
| Maximum safe daily intake (EFSA) | 20 mg/day | Ongoing | [D][8] |
How to Take PQQ
- Timing: Take PQQ in the morning with or without food. Some users prefer taking it with breakfast for better absorption.
- Consistency: Clinical benefits were observed after 8-12 weeks of consistent daily use. Young adults may see improvements in cognitive flexibility and executive speed as early as 8 weeks, while older adults typically show improvements in memory after 12 weeks.[Evidence: D][9]
- Form: Look for PQQ disodium salt, the form used in clinical studies. Branded forms like BioPQQ™ and mnemoPQQ® have been used in research.
- Combination: Combined PQQ and CoQ10 administration may enhance cognitive effects.[Evidence: D][9] A common combination is 20 mg PQQ with 100-200 mg CoQ10.
⚠️ Risks, Side Effects, and Warnings
PQQ has a favorable safety profile supported by regulatory approval and comprehensive toxicology studies. However, certain populations should exercise caution.
⚠️ Important Safety Information
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding: EFSA approval explicitly excludes pregnant and lactating women. Avoid PQQ supplementation during pregnancy and nursing due to lack of safety data in these populations.[8]
- Maximum dosage: Do not exceed 20 mg per day unless directed by a healthcare provider. The EFSA safety margin of 344 applies at this dose.[8]
- Medication interactions: Consult your healthcare provider before taking PQQ if you are on any medications, particularly those affecting blood clotting or metabolism.
- Surgery: Discontinue PQQ supplementation at least 2 weeks before scheduled surgery and consult your surgeon.
Safety Profile
Comprehensive safety assessments demonstrate PQQ's favorable toxicological profile:
- PQQ is approved as a dietary supplement by EFSA (2018) and has FDA GRAS status as a food ingredient (2008).[Evidence: D][6][9]
- Toxicology studies established LD50 values of 1825 mg/kg (males) and 1410 mg/kg (females)—hundreds of times higher than supplement doses.[Evidence: C][10]
- No systemic toxicity was observed at doses up to 600 mg/kg over 90 days, with NOAEL greater than 600 mg/kg body weight.[Evidence: C][10]
- PQQ is non-mutagenic in bacterial assays and non-clastogenic in mammalian micronucleus testing.[Evidence: C][10]
- Clinical trials reported no adverse events in blood work or physical examinations with 20 mg daily for 12 weeks.[Evidence: B][3]
Potential Side Effects
Based on available clinical trials, PQQ is generally well-tolerated. No significant adverse events were reported in human studies using 20 mg daily.[Evidence: B][3][4] However, as with any supplement, individual responses may vary. Discontinue use and consult a healthcare provider if you experience any unusual symptoms.
🥗 Practical Ways to Use PQQ
Incorporating PQQ into your daily routine is straightforward. Here are practical recommendations based on the research and common practices.
1. Choose a Quality Supplement
Look for supplements containing PQQ disodium salt—the form used in clinical studies. Branded ingredients like BioPQQ™ (used in studies[3]) and mnemoPQQ® (safety-tested[10]) have documented research behind them. Check for third-party testing (NSF, USP) to verify purity and potency.
2. Establish a Consistent Morning Routine
Take your PQQ supplement at the same time each morning for best results. Consistency is key—clinical benefits emerged after 8-12 weeks of daily use. Consider pairing with breakfast to establish a habit, though PQQ can be taken with or without food.
3. Consider the PQQ + CoQ10 Stack
Research suggests combined PQQ and CoQ10 administration enhances cognitive effects.[Evidence: D][9] While PQQ creates new mitochondria, CoQ10 optimizes energy production in existing ones. A typical stack combines 20 mg PQQ with 100-200 mg CoQ10. Many combination supplements are available for convenience.
4. Support with Lifestyle Factors
Maximize PQQ's mitochondrial benefits by pairing supplementation with:
- Regular exercise: Studies combined PQQ with endurance training for enhanced PGC-1α expression[2]
- Quality sleep: Adequate rest supports mitochondrial repair and regeneration
- Balanced nutrition: Include foods naturally containing PQQ (natto, kiwi, parsley)
5. Track Your Response
Keep a simple journal noting energy levels, mental clarity, and sleep quality. Clinical research showed younger adults (20-40) may notice cognitive improvements around 8 weeks, while older adults (41-65) typically see memory improvements after 12 weeks.[Evidence: D][9] This can help you assess whether PQQ is providing personal benefits.
⚖️ PQQ vs. CoQ10: Differences and Synergies
PQQ and CoQ10 are often mentioned together in mitochondrial health discussions. Understanding their differences helps you decide which—or both—may be right for you.
| Feature | PQQ | CoQ10 |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Function | Creates new mitochondria (biogenesis) | Optimizes energy in existing mitochondria |
| Mechanism | Activates PGC-1α, CREB, Nrf2 pathways | Electron carrier in ATP production |
| Research Dosage | 20 mg/day | 100-200 mg/day |
| Cognitive Benefits | Memory, attention, executive function[4] | May support brain energy metabolism |
| Heart Health | Mitochondrial protection[14] | Well-established cardioprotective effects |
| Body Synthesis | Not synthesized; obtained from diet/supplements | Naturally synthesized; declines with age |
| Best For | Creating new mitochondria, cognitive function | Energy production, heart health, aging |
Synergistic Effects
Research suggests combined PQQ and CoQ10 administration enhances cognitive effects beyond either supplement alone.[Evidence: D][9] This makes sense mechanistically: PQQ builds new mitochondria while CoQ10 ensures those mitochondria function optimally. For comprehensive mitochondrial support, consider taking both together.
Which Should You Choose?
- Choose PQQ if: Your primary goal is cognitive enhancement, creating new mitochondria, or you're under 50 and want to optimize mitochondrial health proactively.
- Choose CoQ10 if: You're focused on heart health, taking statins (which deplete CoQ10), or over 50 when natural CoQ10 production declines.
- Choose both if: You want comprehensive mitochondrial support addressing both quantity (new mitochondria) and quality (optimal function).
Frequently Asked Questions
How long does it take for PQQ to work?
The timeline for PQQ benefits varies by outcome and age. Research shows younger adults (20-40 years) demonstrated faster improvements in cognitive flexibility and executive speed at 8 weeks, while older adults (41-65 years) showed improvements in complex and verbal memory after 12 weeks of supplementation. Mitochondrial changes at the cellular level may occur earlier, as increased PGC-1α protein expression was observed in a 6-week exercise study. For best results, plan on at least 8-12 weeks of consistent daily supplementation before evaluating benefits. Individual responses vary based on baseline health, age, and lifestyle factors.
What foods contain PQQ?
PQQ is found naturally in various foods, though in small amounts. The richest dietary sources include natto (fermented soybeans), green peppers, parsley, kiwi fruit, papaya, spinach, and green tea. Breast milk also contains PQQ, suggesting its importance in early development. However, dietary intake from food is estimated at only 200-400 micrograms per day—far below the 20 mg used in clinical studies. This gap explains why supplementation is typically necessary to achieve the benefits demonstrated in research. If you prefer whole food approaches, natto provides the highest concentration, though the taste is an acquired one for many Western palates.
Should PQQ be taken with CoQ10?
Taking PQQ with CoQ10 may enhance benefits, particularly for cognitive function. Research indicates that combined PQQ and CoQ10 administration enhanced cognitive effects compared to either alone. This synergy makes sense mechanistically: PQQ promotes the creation of new mitochondria through mitochondrial biogenesis, while CoQ10 optimizes energy production within those mitochondria. A common combination is 20 mg PQQ with 100-200 mg CoQ10. Many supplement manufacturers now offer combination products for convenience. If you're already taking CoQ10, adding PQQ may provide additional benefits.
Is PQQ good for brain health?
Yes, clinical evidence supports PQQ's brain health benefits. A randomized controlled trial with 41 elderly participants found that 20 mg BioPQQ daily for 12 weeks improved selective attention maintenance on the Stroop test and enhanced working memory, while also increasing cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex. Another RCT with 58 adults aged 40-80 showed significant gains in composite memory, verbal memory, reaction time, complex attention, cognitive flexibility, executive function, and motor speed. Reviews confirm PQQ can help prevent reduction of brain function in aged persons.
Can PQQ help with anti-aging?
PQQ shows promise for healthy aging through several mechanisms. The compound activates the Nrf2-ARE pathway, which regulates the body's antioxidant defenses and has been shown to inhibit natural aging-related degeneration in animal studies. PQQ's ability to promote mitochondrial biogenesis is particularly relevant since mitochondrial decline is a hallmark of aging. EFSA approved PQQ as a dietary supplement in 2018, recognizing its potential role in supporting healthy aging processes. While human longevity studies are needed, the mechanistic evidence supports PQQ as part of a healthy aging strategy.
What are the side effects of PQQ?
Clinical trials report that PQQ is well-tolerated with minimal side effects at recommended doses. In studies using 20 mg daily for 12 weeks, no adverse events were detected in blood work or physical examinations. Comprehensive toxicology assessments confirm PQQ is non-mutagenic, non-clastogenic, and non-irritating, with a NOAEL exceeding 600 mg/kg body weight—far above supplement doses. The EFSA safety evaluation found the product composition does not raise safety concerns at 20 mg/day. However, pregnant and lactating women should avoid PQQ as safety data for these populations is lacking.
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- [Evidence: A] = Systematic review or meta-analysis (strongest evidence)
- [Evidence: B] = Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
- [Evidence: C] = Cohort or case-control study
- [Evidence: D] = Expert opinion or clinical guideline
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This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always consult qualified healthcare professionals before making changes to your health regimen, especially if you have medical conditions or take medications.
References
- 1 . Pyrroloquinoline Quinone (PQQ): Its impact on human health and potential benefits. Yan T, Nisar MF, Hu X, et al. Current Research in Food Science, 2024. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: D]
- 2 . Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone (PQQ) Supplementation on Aerobic Exercise Performance and Indices of Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Untrained Men. Hwang PS, Machek SB, Cardaci TD, et al. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 2020. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: B]
- 3 . Effect of the Antioxidant Supplement Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt (BioPQQ™) on Cognitive Functions. Itoh Y, Hine K, Miura H, et al. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 2016. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: B]
- 4 . Effect of Dietary Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt on Cognitive Function in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Study. Shiojima Y, Takahashi M, Takahashi R, et al. Journal of the American Nutritional Association, 2022. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: B]
- 5 . Pyrroloquinoline-quinone to reduce fat accumulation and ameliorate obesity progression. Ishak NSM, Ikemoto K. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 2023. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: D]
- 6 . Metabolic and Biochemical Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone (PQQ) on Inflammation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Potential Health Benefits in Obesity and Future Perspectives. Charrier D, Cerullo G, Carpenito R, et al. Antioxidants (Basel), 2024. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: D]
- 7 . Nrf2 activation by pyrroloquinoline quinone inhibits natural aging-related intervertebral disk degeneration in mice. Xue Q, Li J, Qin R, et al. Aging Cell, 2024. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 8 . Safety of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 258/97. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). EFSA Journal, 2017. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: D]
- 9 . The effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt on brain function and physiological processes. Ikemoto K, Ishak NSM, Akagawa M. Journal of Medical Investigation, 2024. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: D]
- 10 . Safety assessment of a novel, dietary pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt (mnemoPQQ®). Shiojima Y, Deshmukh N, Moriyama H, et al. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2022. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 11 . Pyrroloquinoline quinone inhibits the production of inflammatory cytokines via the SIRT1/NF-κB signal pathway in weaned piglet jejunum. Zhang H, Li J, Cao C, et al. Food & Function, 2020. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 12 . Pyrroloquinoline quinone regulates the redox status in vitro and in vivo of weaned pigs via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Huang C, Fan Z, Han D, et al. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 2021. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 13 . Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Decelerates Rheumatoid Arthritis Progression by Inhibiting Inflammatory Responses and Joint Destruction via Modulating NF-κB and MAPK Pathways. Liu Z, Sun C, Tao R, et al. Inflammation, 2016. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 14 . Pyrroloquinoline quinone can prevent chronic heart failure by regulating mitochondrial function. Xu X, Chen C, Lu WJ, et al. Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy, 2020. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
- 15 . Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone on Lipid Metabolism and Anti-Oxidative Capacity in a High-Fat-Diet Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease Chick Model. Qiu K, Zhao Q, Wang J, et al. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2021. PubMed | DOI [Evidence: C]
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This content is for informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to provide medical advice or to take the place of such advice or treatment from a personal physician. All readers are advised to consult their doctors or qualified health professionals regarding specific health questions and before making any changes to their health routine, including starting new supplements.
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