💡 What You Need to Know Right Away
- NAD+ precursor supplementation consistently raises blood NAD+ levels, with oral nicotinamide riboside (NR) producing up to 2.7-fold increases in a single dose[Evidence: B][9]
- Despite elevated NAD+ levels, most clinically relevant outcomes (glucose, lipids, muscle mass) show no significant improvement versus placebo in meta-analyses[Evidence: A][1][2]
- NAD+ precursors appear safe at tested doses (250-3000mg daily) with no serious adverse events in trials lasting up to 12 weeks[Evidence: B][10][13]
- NMN supplementation maintained walking speed and improved sleep quality in older adults over 24 weeks[Evidence: B][8]
If you've been searching for ways to boost your energy, support healthy aging, or optimize your cellular health, you've likely encountered NAD+. This essential coenzyme has become one of the most talked-about molecules in longevity research, with celebrities and scientists alike exploring its potential.
But here's what many don't tell you: NAD+ levels decline significantly as we age, and this decline is linked to multiple age-associated diseases[Evidence: D][18]. The good news? Your body can produce NAD+ from compounds found in food—specifically vitamin B3 (niacin and nicotinamide) and the amino acid tryptophan[Evidence: D][15].
This guide examines the science behind NAD+ boosting foods, what the clinical research actually shows, and how you can make informed decisions about supporting your NAD+ levels naturally.
❓ Quick Answers
What foods boost NAD+ naturally?
Foods containing vitamin B3 (niacin and nicotinamide) and tryptophan provide precursors your body converts into NAD+. These include animal proteins like poultry, fish, and liver; plant sources like mushrooms, legumes, and whole grains; and dairy products. Your body synthesizes NAD+ through multiple pathways using these dietary precursors[Evidence: D][19].
What is NAD+ and why is it important?
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a coenzyme present in all living cells that plays essential roles in energy metabolism, DNA repair, and cellular signaling. NAD+ is required for over 500 enzymatic reactions and is critical for mitochondrial function. Aging is accompanied by gradual NAD+ decline, which has been linked to age-related diseases[Evidence: D][18].
How does aging affect NAD levels?
NAD+ levels decline progressively with age. This age-associated decline affects mitochondrial function, autophagy, and cellular repair mechanisms[Evidence: D][17]. Research suggests restoring NAD+ levels may help slow or reverse some age-related conditions, though clinical evidence in humans remains limited[Evidence: D][18].
Can you get enough NAD from food?
You cannot get NAD+ directly from food—it must be synthesized by your body from precursor compounds. Foods provide vitamin B3 (niacin, nicotinamide) and tryptophan, which your body converts to NAD+ through distinct biosynthetic pathways[Evidence: D][19]. Meeting the RDA for vitamin B3 (14-16mg daily) supports NAD+ production.
What depletes NAD levels?
NAD+ depletion accelerates with aging and is driven by increased activity of NAD+-consuming enzymes like CD38 and PARPs. Chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage increase NAD+ consumption. Lifestyle factors including alcohol consumption, UV exposure, and sedentary behavior may also contribute to decline[Evidence: D][17].
How much niacin do you need per day?
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B3 is 16mg for adult men and 14mg for adult women. The tolerable upper intake level is 35mg daily from supplements to avoid flushing[Evidence: D][14]. Most people can meet these needs through a balanced diet containing protein-rich foods.
🔬 How Your Body Makes NAD+ From Food
Think of NAD+ as your body's cellular currency—the universal energy token that powers hundreds of biochemical transactions every second. Just as an economy needs a constant supply of currency to function, your cells need a continuous supply of NAD+ to maintain metabolic health.
Your body produces NAD+ through three main pathways, each using different dietary precursors:
The Salvage Pathway (Primary Route)
This is the body's main NAD+ recycling system, accounting for the majority of NAD+ production. Nicotinamide (NAM), a form of vitamin B3, is converted to nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) and then to NAD+. This pathway efficiently recycles NAD+ breakdown products back into usable form. Multiple NAD+ precursors, including nicotinamide and nicotinamide riboside, converge on NMN synthesis before conversion to NAD+[Evidence: D][19].
The De Novo Pathway (From Tryptophan)
The amino acid tryptophan can be converted to NAD+ through the kynurenine pathway. This pathway accounts for approximately 95% of dietary tryptophan degradation, with about 90% occurring in the liver[Evidence: D][16]. Think of this pathway as the backup generator—it provides an alternative NAD+ source when vitamin B3 intake is insufficient.
The tryptophan kynurenine pathway contributes to NAD+ production and mitochondrial health. Age-associated NAD+ decline has been implicated in multiple age-associated diseases, making this pathway a target for longevity interventions[Evidence: D][15].
The Preiss-Handler Pathway (From Nicotinic Acid)
Nicotinic acid (niacin), another form of vitamin B3, enters this pathway to produce NAD+. This route is particularly relevant when consuming niacin-rich foods or supplements.
Direct Precursor Pathways (NR and NMN)
Nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) are more direct NAD+ precursors found in trace amounts in some foods. Clinical studies demonstrate that oral NR produces dose-dependent NAD+ increases, with blood NAD+ elevated up to 2.7-fold following a single dose[Evidence: B][9]. NMN supplementation also consistently elevates blood NAD+ across multiple clinical trials[Evidence: A][1].
📊 NAD+ Precursor Dosage: What Clinical Studies Show
Clinical trials have established dosing ranges for NAD+ precursor supplements. These doses consistently raise blood NAD+ levels, though clinical benefits vary by outcome measured.
Important: The dosage data below reflects clinical trial protocols using purified NAD+ precursor supplements, not food sources. Food-specific NAD+ precursor content varies and has not been systematically studied in clinical trials.
| Compound | Dosage | Duration | Population | Outcome | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NMN | 250 mg/day | 12 weeks | Healthy volunteers | Safe; significantly increased NAD+ | [B][13] |
| NMN | 600 mg/day | 60 days | Healthy middle-aged adults | Optimal dose; increased NAD+ across groups | [B][10] |
| NR | 100-1000 mg (single) | Single dose | Healthy adults | Dose-dependent NAD+ elevation (up to 2.7-fold) | [B][9] |
| NR | 1000 mg/day | 10 weeks | Older adults with MCI | Increased NAD+; no cognitive improvement | [B][6] |
| NR | 2000 mg/day | 12 weeks | Obese men | Safe; no metabolic improvements vs placebo | [B][7] |
| NR | 3000 mg/day | 4 weeks | Parkinson's disease patients | Well-tolerated; increased cerebral NAD+ | [B][12] |
Key Dosing Insights
- Dose-response relationship: Higher doses generally produce greater NAD+ elevation, though 600mg NMN was identified as optimal in one dose-finding study[Evidence: B][10]
- Timing: Most trials administered supplements once daily; some used twice-daily dosing
- Food vs. supplements: Clinical trials use purified supplements; food-based NAD+ precursor intake has not been studied in controlled trials
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) from Food
For dietary vitamin B3, the RDA is 14-16mg daily, easily achieved through foods containing niacin and nicotinamide. Foods rich in vitamin B3 include poultry, fish, liver, legumes, mushrooms, and fortified grains. Meeting the RDA supports baseline NAD+ production through the salvage and Preiss-Handler pathways.
⚠️ Risks, Side Effects, and Warnings
Side Effects by Compound
An overview of reviews on niacin and nicotinamide adverse effects found these compounds are associated with gastrointestinal upset, liver dysfunction, flushing, skin rash, and fatigue[Evidence: D][14]. Key findings:
- Nicotinamide: Fewer adverse effects than niacin; dose-dependent; most resolve on discontinuation[Evidence: D][14]
- Niacin (nicotinic acid): Flushing is common at doses above 35mg; can cause hepatotoxicity at high doses
- NR and NMN supplements: Generally well-tolerated at tested doses (250-3000mg) with no serious adverse events in trials[Evidence: B][7][13]
Cardiovascular Considerations
Research has identified that niacin metabolites (2PY and 4PY) are associated with increased 3-year major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE) risk. The metabolite 4PY induces vascular inflammation via VCAM-1[Evidence: C][5]. This observational finding warrants consideration, particularly for those with cardiovascular disease.
That said, a meta-analysis found niacin may have use for lipid control in secondary prevention as monotherapy for statin-intolerant patients, though evidence is mainly from older studies[Evidence: A][4].
Contraindications
- Known allergy or hypersensitivity to NAD+ precursors
- Active liver disease (niacin is hepatotoxic at high doses)
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding: No safety data available in verified sources
- Pediatric populations: No safety data available
Monitoring Recommendations
Specific monitoring protocols were not established in the reviewed clinical trials. General recommendations:
- Baseline liver function tests before high-dose niacin supplementation
- Regular monitoring if using supplements long-term
- Report any adverse effects to your healthcare provider promptly
🥗 Practical Ways to Support NAD+ Levels
Food-Based Approach
General guidance: Prioritize foods containing vitamin B3 (niacin and nicotinamide) and tryptophan to provide NAD+ precursors through your diet.
Why specific dosage from food is unclear: Clinical research on NAD+ precursors has used purified supplements rather than whole foods. Studies reviewed used supplemental doses ranging from 250mg to 3000mg daily[10][12], but optimal intake from food sources has not been determined through controlled trials.
Food Categories Rich in NAD+ Precursors
- Animal proteins: Poultry, fish (especially salmon and tuna), beef, liver—excellent sources of niacin and tryptophan
- Plant proteins: Legumes (lentils, peanuts), seeds (sunflower, pumpkin), mushrooms
- Whole grains: Fortified cereals, whole wheat, brown rice
- Dairy: Milk and cheese contain traces of nicotinamide riboside
- Vegetables: Green peas, broccoli, avocado (contain trace NMN)
Practical Integration
Aim for adequate protein intake from varied sources throughout the day. A diet meeting the RDA for vitamin B3 (14-16mg) supports NAD+ production through normal metabolic pathways[Evidence: D][19].
Common Mistakes to Avoid
- Expecting supplement-like results from food: Clinical trials used concentrated supplements (250-3000mg); food provides lower precursor amounts
- Inconsistent intake: NAD+ turnover is continuous; regular dietary protein supports ongoing production
- Ignoring overall diet quality: NAD+ metabolism involves multiple nutrients; a balanced diet supports all pathways
Lifestyle Factors That Support NAD+
Beyond diet, research suggests several lifestyle factors may influence NAD+ levels:
- Exercise: Physical activity upregulates NAD+ biosynthesis pathways
- Calorie management: Caloric restriction has been associated with increased NAD+ in preclinical studies
- Sleep quality: NAD+ is involved in circadian rhythm regulation
- Limiting alcohol: Alcohol metabolism depletes NAD+
⚖️ NAD+ Boosting Foods vs. Supplements: What Does the Evidence Show?
This is a critical question for anyone considering how to support their NAD+ levels. Here's what the clinical evidence tells us:
| Factor | NAD+ Precursor Foods | NR/NMN Supplements |
|---|---|---|
| NAD+ Elevation | Supports baseline NAD+ production; magnitude not studied | Proven: up to 2.7-fold increase[9] |
| Clinical Benefits | Not studied in controlled trials | Mixed: NAD+ increases but most clinical outcomes not improved vs placebo[1][2] |
| Safety Profile | Generally recognized as safe (food-based) | Well-tolerated at tested doses; long-term data limited[7] |
| Cost | Incorporated into normal diet | $30-100+/month for quality supplements |
| Evidence Quality | Biochemical pathway established; clinical trials lacking | Multiple RCTs and meta-analyses available |
| Accessibility | Widely available | Available; NMN regulatory status varies by country |
The Evidence Gap
A crucial finding from meta-analyses: NMN elevated blood NAD+ but most clinically relevant outcomes were not significantly different versus control[Evidence: A][1]. Similarly, current evidence does not support NMN and NR for preserving muscle mass or function in adults over 60 years[Evidence: A][2].
This suggests that while NAD+ precursor supplementation reliably increases blood NAD+ levels, translating that into measurable health benefits remains challenging. Oral administration is safe with significantly increased NAD+, but efficacy is lower than preclinical models suggested[Evidence: D][19].
Promising Signals
Not all findings are null. Some studies show positive results:
- NR meaningfully improved 6-minute walk distance in peripheral artery disease patients over 6 months[Evidence: B][11]
- NMN maintained walking speed and improved sleep quality in older adults[Evidence: B][8]
- NR produced significant increases in cerebral NAD levels in Parkinson's patients[Evidence: B][12]
- NAD+ precursor supplementation reduced BMI and increased adiponectin[Evidence: A][3]
Bottom Line
A food-first approach supports baseline NAD+ production and comes with no additional cost or safety concerns. Supplements reliably raise NAD+ levels but haven't consistently delivered clinical benefits in trials. If you're considering supplements, discuss with your healthcare provider and set realistic expectations.
What The Evidence Shows (And Doesn't Show)
What Research Suggests
- NAD+ precursor supplements (NR and NMN) reliably and consistently increase blood NAD+ levels in humans, with oral NR producing up to 2.7-fold elevation[Evidence: B][9]
- NAD+ precursors appear safe at doses of 250-3000mg daily for up to 12 weeks, with no serious adverse events in multiple trials (n>500 participants total)[Evidence: B][7][10][13]
- Certain populations show functional benefits: peripheral artery disease patients improved walking distance[Evidence: B][11]; older adults maintained walking speed and improved sleep[Evidence: B][8]
- NAD+ precursor supplementation (nicotinic acid/nicotinamide) reduced BMI and increased adiponectin in meta-analysis[Evidence: A][3]
- Aging is accompanied by progressive NAD+ decline, which affects mitochondrial function and cellular repair mechanisms[Evidence: D][17][18]
What's NOT Yet Proven
- Optimal dosage not established: Clinical trials used doses from 250mg to 3000mg daily with varying results; which dose is optimal for which outcome remains unclear
- Clinical translation gap: Despite consistent NAD+ elevation, most clinically relevant outcomes (glucose, lipids, muscle mass, cognition) were not significantly improved versus placebo in meta-analyses[Evidence: A][1][2]
- Long-term effects unknown: Longest trials were 24 weeks; safety and efficacy beyond 6 months not established
- Food-based NAD+ precursor intake unstudied: No controlled trials have measured NAD+ elevation or health outcomes from dietary vitamin B3 intake (vs. supplements)
- Anti-aging benefits unproven in humans: Preclinical promise has not translated to demonstrated lifespan or healthspan extension in human trials
Where Caution Is Needed
- Niacin metabolites (2PY, 4PY) associated with increased cardiovascular event risk in observational study; 4PY induces vascular inflammation[Evidence: C][5]
- High-dose niacin can cause flushing, hepatotoxicity, and gastrointestinal side effects[Evidence: D][14]
- Efficacy in humans is lower than preclinical models suggested—exaggeration of benefits may exist in the field[Evidence: A][1][19]
- No safety data available for pregnancy, breastfeeding, or pediatric populations
Should YOU Try This?
Best suited for: Adults interested in supporting NAD+ metabolism through diet and potentially supplementation, with realistic expectations about current evidence limitations. Those with specific conditions (peripheral artery disease, sleep issues in older age) may see more benefit based on available trial data.
Not recommended for: Individuals with liver disease (high-dose niacin is hepatotoxic), those seeking guaranteed anti-aging benefits (evidence doesn't support this), pregnant or breastfeeding women (no safety data), or anyone expecting supplement-level NAD+ elevation from foods alone.
Realistic timeline: Blood NAD+ increases within hours to days of supplementation. Functional benefits (if any) typically measured over 10-24 weeks in trials. Food-based approaches support baseline NAD+ production indefinitely.
When to consult a professional: Before starting NAD+ precursor supplements, especially if you have cardiovascular disease, take medications, have liver disease, or are over 65. A healthcare provider can help weigh individual risks and benefits.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between NMN and NR?
NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide) and NR (nicotinamide riboside) are both NAD+ precursors but enter the NAD+ biosynthesis pathway at different points. NR is converted to NMN, which is then converted to NAD+. Both compounds converge on NMN synthesis before conversion to NAD+[Evidence: D][19]. Clinical trials show both effectively raise blood NAD+ levels[Evidence: B][9][10]. NR has more extensive human trial data, while NMN research is growing. Neither has demonstrated clear superiority for clinical outcomes.
Do NAD supplements work better than food for raising NAD+ levels?
Supplements demonstrably raise blood NAD+ levels—with increases up to 2.7-fold documented for NR[Evidence: B][9]. Food-based NAD+ precursor intake has not been measured in controlled trials, so direct comparison isn't possible. However, even with supplements reliably raising NAD+, meta-analyses show most clinically relevant outcomes were not significantly different versus placebo[Evidence: A][1]. Food provides adequate precursors for baseline NAD+ production at lower cost and established safety.
What are the symptoms of NAD+ deficiency?
Severe NAD+ precursor deficiency causes pellagra, characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and potentially death. Subclinical NAD+ decline with aging is associated with fatigue, cognitive changes, reduced physical function, and metabolic dysfunction, though these associations are correlational. Age-associated NAD+ decline has been implicated in multiple diseases[Evidence: D][18]. Diagnosing 'NAD+ deficiency' is not routine clinical practice—most people with adequate vitamin B3 intake produce sufficient NAD+ for normal function.
What foods contain nicotinamide riboside (NR)?
NR is found in trace amounts in dairy milk, with small quantities also detected in beer and some vegetables. However, the amounts in food are far below the doses used in clinical trials (typically 250-1000mg)[Evidence: B][6][9]. Most dietary NAD+ precursor intake comes from niacin and nicotinamide in protein-rich foods, not from NR. Obtaining clinically relevant NR doses through food alone is not practical—supplements are required for the doses used in research.
Can NAD+ slow aging?
This is an active research question without a definitive answer. Aging is accompanied by gradual NAD+ decline, and restoring NAD+ levels may slow or reverse some age-related conditions in preclinical models[Evidence: D][18]. NAD+ restoration reduces inflammation, reactivates autophagy, and enhances oxidative metabolism[Evidence: D][17]. However, human trials have not demonstrated clear anti-aging benefits yet—NAD+ precursor efficacy in humans is lower than preclinical models suggested[Evidence: D][19].
How long until I see results from NAD+ precursor supplementation?
Blood NAD+ levels increase within hours of supplementation, with significant elevation documented even from single doses[Evidence: B][9]. Clinical trials measured outcomes at various timepoints: 4 weeks (Parkinson's study)[12], 10-12 weeks (metabolic/cognitive studies)[6][7], and up to 24 weeks[8]. Symptom improvements like better sleep quality were observed over longer supplementation periods. Timeline varies by individual and outcome measured—set realistic expectations given mixed clinical results.
Is it safe to take NAD+ precursors long-term?
Current trial data extends to approximately 12-24 weeks, with no serious adverse events reported at tested doses[Evidence: B][7][8][13]. NMN 250mg daily for 12 weeks was safe with no laboratory abnormalities[Evidence: B][13]. Long-term safety beyond 6 months has not been established through controlled trials. An overview of reviews found niacin/nicotinamide adverse effects are generally dose-dependent and resolve on discontinuation[Evidence: D][14].
Does NR help with physical performance or exercise?
Results are mixed. NR meaningfully improved 6-minute walk distance in patients with peripheral artery disease over 6 months[Evidence: B][11]. However, a meta-analysis found current evidence does not support NMN and NR for preserving muscle mass or function in adults over 60 years[Evidence: A][2]. NMN maintained walking speed in older adults over 24 weeks[Evidence: B][8]. Benefits may depend on baseline health status and specific populations studied.
Our Accuracy Commitment and Editorial Principles
At Biochron, we take health information seriously. Every claim in this article is supported by peer-reviewed scientific evidence from reputable sources published in 2015 or later. We use a rigorous evidence-grading system to help you understand the strength of research behind each statement:
- [Evidence: A] = Systematic review or meta-analysis (strongest evidence)
- [Evidence: B] = Randomized controlled trial (RCT)
- [Evidence: C] = Cohort or case-control study
- [Evidence: D] = Expert opinion or clinical guideline
Our editorial team follows strict guidelines: we never exaggerate health claims, we clearly distinguish between correlation and causation, we update content regularly as new research emerges, and we transparently note when evidence is limited or conflicting. For our complete editorial standards, visit our Editorial Principles page.
This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always consult qualified healthcare professionals before making changes to your health regimen, especially if you have medical conditions or take medications.
References
- 1 . Efficacy of oral nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation on glucose and lipid metabolism for adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 2025, PubMed [Evidence: A]
- 2 . The Effect of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide and Riboside on Skeletal Muscle Mass and Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle, 2025, PubMed [Evidence: A]
- 3 . The effects of NAD+ precursor (nicotinic acid and nicotinamide) supplementation on weight loss and related hormones, Frontiers in nutrition, 2023, PubMed [Evidence: A]
- 4 . Assessment of the Role of Niacin in Managing Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, JAMA network open, 2019, PubMed [Evidence: A]
- 5 . A terminal metabolite of niacin promotes vascular inflammation and contributes to cardiovascular disease risk, Nature medicine, 2024, PubMed [Evidence: C]
- 6 . A randomized placebo-controlled trial of nicotinamide riboside in older adults with mild cognitive impairment, GeroScience, 2024, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 7 . A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of nicotinamide riboside in obese men: safety, insulin-sensitivity, and lipid-mobilizing effects, The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2018, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 8 . Ingestion of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide increased blood NAD levels, maintained walking speed, and improved sleep quality in older adults, GeroScience, 2024, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 9 . Nicotinamide riboside is uniquely and orally bioavailable in mice and humans, Nature communications, 2016, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 10 . The efficacy and safety of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) supplementation in healthy middle-aged adults, GeroScience, 2023, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 11 . Nicotinamide riboside for peripheral artery disease: the NICE randomized clinical trial, Nature communications, 2024, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 12 . The NADPARK study: A randomized phase I trial of nicotinamide riboside supplementation in Parkinson's disease, Cell metabolism, 2022, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 13 . Oral Administration of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Is Safe and Efficiently Increases Blood Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Levels in Healthy Subjects, Frontiers in nutrition, 2022, PubMed [Evidence: B]
- 14 . The adverse effects of oral niacin/nicotinamide - an overview of reviews, Eye (London, England), 2025, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 15 . Kynurenine pathway, NAD(+) synthesis, and mitochondrial function: Targeting tryptophan metabolism to promote longevity and healthspan, Experimental gerontology, 2020, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 16 . Kynurenine Pathway of Tryptophan Metabolism: Regulatory and Functional Aspects, International journal of tryptophan research, 2017, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 17 . The role of NAD(+) metabolism and its modulation of mitochondria in aging and disease, npj metabolic health and disease, 2025, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 18 . NAD(+) metabolism and its roles in cellular processes during ageing, Nature reviews. Molecular cell biology, 2021, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 19 . NAD(+) Precursors in Human Health and Disease: Current Status and Future Prospects, Antioxidants & redox signaling, 2023, PubMed [Evidence: D]
- 20 . The Safety and Antiaging Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide in Human Clinical Trials: an Update, Advances in nutrition, 2023, PubMed [Evidence: D]
Medical Disclaimer
This content is for informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to provide medical advice or to take the place of such advice or treatment from a personal physician. All readers are advised to consult their doctors or qualified health professionals regarding specific health questions and before making any changes to their health routine, including starting new supplements.
Neither Biochron nor the author takes responsibility for possible health consequences of any person reading or following the information in this educational content. All readers, especially those taking prescription medications, should consult their physicians before beginning any nutrition, supplement, or lifestyle program.
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